Provisional Government of Azad Hind (Free India)

• On 21 October 1943, Subhash Chandra Bose announced the formation of the Provisional Government of Azad Hind (Free India) as a government-in-exile in Singapore.

• Subhash Chandra Bose was the Head of State, Prime Minister and Minister of War.

• The Provisional Government not only enabled Bose to negotiate with the Japanese on an equal footing but also facilitated the mobilisation of Indians in East Asia to join and support the INA. 

• Soon after the announcement, the Provisional Government received recognition from various countries.

Mahalwari Settlement-1822

• In the North Western Provinces of the Bengal Presidency (most of this area is now in Uttar Pradesh), an Englishman called Holt Mackenzie devised the new system of revenue system which came into effect in 1822 called known as the Mahalwari Settlement.

• Holt Mackenzie felt that the village was an important social institution in north Indian society and needed to be preserved.

• Under this system the estimated revenue of each plot within a village was added up to calculate the revenue that each village (mahal) had to pay. This demand was to be revised periodically, not permanently fixed. 

• The charge of collecting the revenue and paying it to the Company was given to the village headman, rather than the zamindar.

The Ryotwari Settlement of Thomas Munro

• The  Ryotwari Settlement introduced in 1820 also called as Munro system. Under this system, tevenue settlement, were made directly with the cultivators (ryots) who had tilled the land for generations. 

• Their fields had to be carefully and separately surveyed before the revenue assessment was made. This system was implemented in southern states of Indian British territories and instead of the idea of Permanent Settlement.

• It was tried on a small scale by Captain Alexander Read on some areas taken over by the Company after the wars with Tipu Sultan. 

• Subsequently developed by Thomas Munro, this system was gradually extended all over south India and the devised system came to be known as the ryotwar (or ryotwari ). Munro thought that the British should act as paternal father figures protecting the ryots under their charge.

Which one of the following High Courts has jurisdiction over the largest number of States?

   Which one of the following High Courts has jurisdiction over the largest number of States ?

             (a) The Gauhati High Court                  (b) Calcutta High Court

             (c) High Court of Kerala                        (d) High Court of Bombay

Answer: Click

·       Which one of the following High Courts has jurisdiction over the largest number of States ?

             (a) The Gauhati High Court                  (b) Calcutta High Court

             (c) High Court of Kerala                        (d) High Court of Bombay

Answer is (a) The Gauhati High Court.: The Gauhati High Court has jurisdiction over the largest number of states among the options provided. It has jurisdiction over the states of Assam, Nagaland, Mizoram, and Arunachal Pradesh. Therefore, it covers a larger geographical area compared to the other High Courts listed in the options.

What is Internet of Things(IoTs)?

•  IoT (IoTs) is a collection of autonomous things, a system of interconnected computing devices, mechanical and digital machines, objects, animals, or people with unique identifiers and thus the ability to transmit data over a network without requiring human-to-human or human-to-computer interaction. 

• IoTs is a new pattern that includes the existing presence of different devices. It is one of the latest technologies that provide global connectivity, management of sensors, users and information.

• The term "Internet of Things or IoT" was coined independently by Kevin Ashton of Procter & Gamble, later of MIT's Auto-ID Center, in 1999.

• The concept came into light in 2005 after publication of Primary Testimony on the Topic i.e., ‘IoT’  by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU). 

• Gartner describes IoT as network of physical objects that contain embedded technology to talk, sense, or interact with their internal states or the external environment. 

• “The IoT” is described as “” Cisco describes IoTs as “the Internet of All” (IoE). IoTs are also known as “Embedded Internet” by Intel, and other words for IoTs include, M2M (Machine to machine) communication, Web of Things, Industry 4.0, Industrial internet (of Things) etc.

• An IoT attack is a compromise of an Internet of Things (IoT) system. This can include devices, networks, data, and users. A cybercriminal can launch an IoT attack to steal information. They can take over an automated or IoT system, and shut it down. Clone ID and Sybil Attacks are well known routing attacks on IoTs.

FINANCIAL ACTION TASK FORCE (FATF)

• Establishment: FATF was established in 1989 during a G7 summit held in Paris.

• Initial Mandate: Its primary objective was to combat money laundering globally.

• First Meeting: The inaugural meeting took place in Paris in 1989.

• Forty Recommendations: In 1990, FATF issued Forty Recommendations to provide a framework for anti-money laundering efforts.

• Expansion: Over time, FATF expanded its focus to include combating the financing of terrorism (CFT).

• Global Influence: FATF sets international standards for AML/CFT efforts, widely adopted by countries worldwide.

• Mutual Evaluations: Conducts peer reviews to assess member countries' compliance with FATF standards.

• Public Statements: Issues public statements identifying countries with deficiencies in AML/CFT regimes.

Bombyx Mori or Silk Worm

• The commercial silk is obtained from cocoons secreted by the salivary glands of Bombyx mori, commonly known as the silkworm. 

• It is a species of moth whose larvae produce silk fibers. These fibers are spun into cocoons as part of the silkworm's natural life cycle. 

• The silk fibers are harvested from these cocoons and processed into various commercial products, making Bombyx mori the primary source of commercial silk production.

Jal Jeevan Mission(JJM)-Har Ghar Jal

 

Ø  Since August 2019, Department of Drinking Water and Sanitation, Ministry of Jal Shakti in partnership with States is implementing Jal Jeevan Mission (JJM)-Har Ghar Jal to make provision of potable water to every rural household of the country by 2024, through tap water connection.

Ø Vision: Every rural household has drinking water supply in adequate quantity and quality on regular and long-term basis at affordable service delivery charges.

Ø  Mission: Jal Jeevan Mission is to assist, empower and facilitate States/ UTs :

·   In planning of participatory rural water supply strategy for ensuring potable drinking water security on long-term basis to every rural household and public institution, viz. GP building, School, Anganwadi, Health & wellness centres, etc.

·   For creation of water supply infrastructure so that every rural household has Functional Tap Connection (FHTC) by 2024 and water in adequate quantity of prescribed quality is made available on regular basis.

·       to plan for their drinking water security

·  to develop robust institutions having focus on service delivery and financial sustainability of the sector by promoting utility approach

·      GPs/ rural communities to plan, implement, manage, own, operate and maintain their own in-village water supply systems

·    Capacity building of the stakeholders and create awareness in community on significance of water for improvement in quality of life

·       In making provision and mobilization of financial assistance to States/ UTs for implementation of the mission.

Objectives: The broad objectives of the Mission are:

·      To provide Functional Tap Connection (FHTC)  to every rural household.

·     To prioritize provision of FHTCs in quality affected areas, villages in drought prone and desert areas, Sansad Adarsh Gram Yojana (SAGY) villages, etc.

·    To provide functional tap connection to Schools, Anganwadi centres, GP buildings, Health centres, wellness centres and community buildings

·       To monitor functionality of tap connections.

·  To promote and ensure voluntary ownership among local community by way of contribution in cash, kind and/ or labour and voluntary labour (shramdaan)

·    To assist in ensuring sustainability of water supply system, i.e. water source, water supply infrastructure, and funds for regular O&M

·   To empower and develop human resource in the sector such that the demands of construction, plumbing, electrical, water quality management, water treatment, catchment protection, O&M, etc. are taken care of in short and long term

·    To bring awareness on various aspects and significance of safe drinking water and involvement of stakeholders in manner that make water everyone's business

Components under JJM : The following components are supported under JJM

·   Development of in-village piped water supply infrastructure to provide tap water connection to every rural household;

·   Development of reliable drinking water sources and/ or augmentation of existing sources to provide long-term sustainability of water supply system

·      Wherever necessary, bulk water transfer, treatment plants and distribution network to cater to every rural household

·       Technological interventions for removal of contaminants

·       Retrofitting of completed and ongoing schemes to provide FHTCs at minimum service level of 55 lpcd;

·       Greywater management

·   Support activities, i.e. IEC, HRD, training, development of utilities, water quality laboratories, water quality testing & surveillance, R&D, knowledge centre, capacity building of communities, etc.

Ecological Succession

 

·     Ecological Succession

Ø  The gradual change in species composition and processes of communities over time is known as ecological succession or community development.

Ø  From the stand point of time, ecosystem and community changes can be divided into two types: 

i. Changes occurring over geological time scale (million years), and

ii. Those occurring over medium time scale, say in 1-1000 years.

Ø  The causes of succession are as follows:

                  i.    Initial/Initiating causes: These are climatic as well as biotic. The factors include erosion and deposition, wind, fire, activities of organisms, etc. These causes produce the bare areas or destroy the existing population in the area.

            ii.    Ecesis/Continuing causes: These are the processes such as migration, ecesis, aggregation, competition, reaction, etc., which cause successive waves of populations as a result of changes, chiefly in the edaphic features of the area.

               iii.    Stabilizing causes: These cause the stabilization of the community. According to Clements, climate of the area is the chief cause of stabilization, other factors are of secondary value.

 

DIFFERENT KINDS OF SUCCESSIONS

Ø   Primary succession: If succession proceeds from a primary bare area or primitive substratum which has not been changed physically by organisms, it is called primary succession. The first group of plants establishing there are known as pioneers.

Ø  Secondary succession: If succession starts in a secondary area previously colonized, but has been cleared off, it is called secondary succession. Thes series of developmental stages are called subseres. In subseres, the substratum contains already formed soil, humus and may contain seeds.

Ø  Autotrophic succession: Succession characterized by early and continued dominance of autotrophic organisms like green plants.

Ø  Heterotrophic succession: Succession characterized by an early dominance of heterotrophs, i.e., fungi, bacteria and animals. It begins in a predominantly organic environment, and there is a progressive decline in the energy content.

Ø  Induced succession: The climax community has low productivity as compared to initial communities. In a climax community respiration almost balances the production of organic matter. Therefore, very little is left for man to harvest.

Ø  Allogenic succession: Allogenic succession is due to major environmental changes beyond the control of the indigenous organisms. Dust bowls, winds, dry periods change the pattern of vegetation.

Ø  Autogenic succession: Succession resulting from the resident population altering its own environment. For example, plants of a developmental state produce changes in the habitat initially to favor their growth but the changes go on beyond the optimum so that the habitat becomes unsuitable for them.

Ø  Retrogressive succession: At times a climax vegetation may deteriorate and get replaced by a community of an earlier stage of succession due to destructive effects of organisms. Sometimes the development of the disturbed communities does not occur and the process of successive instead of progressive becomes retrogressive, e.g., forest may change to shrubby or grassland.

Ø  Deflected succession: A succession in which the vegetation does not pass through the normal stages of development but either adds or replaces a successional type.

Ø  Serule (Microsere): It refers to the miniature succession of microorganisms like fungi, bacteria, actinomycetes, etc., that occurs within a microhabitat like fallen logs of decaying wood, tree, bark, etc. Serule is heterotrophic in nature and begins on substratum rich in organic matter.

 

GENERAL PROCESS OF SUCCESSION

 1)    Nudation: Development of a bare area without any form of life. The area may develop due to several causes such as landslide, erosion, deposition or other catastrophic agency.

2)    Invasion: Successful establishment of a species in a bare area. The species actually reaches this new site from any other area. It involves following successive stages 

(i) Migration (dispersal): The seeds, spores, or other propagules of the species reach the bare area. The agencies which bring about dispersal are wind, water, animal including man.  

(ii) Ecesis (establishment): After reaching the area, the process of successful establishment of the species, as a result of adjustment with the conditions prevailing there, is known as ecesis. This process is dependent upon the climatic, edaphic and biotic factors. The success of plant depends upon the climatic, edaphic and biotic factors. In plants, after migration, seeds or propagules germinate, seedlings grow, and adults start to reproduce. Only a few of them are capable of doing this under primitive harsh conditions and thus most of them disappear. As a result of ecesis, the individuals of species become established in the area. 

(iii) Aggregation:      As a result of reproduction, the individuals of the species increase in number, and they come close to each other.                                       

 3) Competition and Coaction: This phenomenon involve struggle for existence between two or more individuals growing in an area, that makes successive demands, that are similar in nature, on the soil.

 4) Reaction: This is the most important stage in succession. The mechanism of the modification of the environment through the influence of living organisms on it, is known as reaction. As a result of reactions, changes take place in soil, water, light conditions, temperature, etc., of the environment. For example, plants change the structure and texture of soil in course of time by addition of humus into the soil. Due to all these, environment is modified, becoming unsuitable for the existing community which sooner or later is replaced by another community.

 5) Climax community: The reactions of individuals collectively have a wider effect on the environment. The local climate is actually changed if the climax vegetation is forest. The reactions keep the vegetation in active state till the climax community is formed. Although strictly speaking vegetation can never be called as stable. Yet at maturity the community being mesic, further mesic changes being less possible the climax community can be called as relatively stable. Thus, we find the development of community living in harmony within the environment which has been the result of its reactions.

Desert Biome : Desert, Location and its Classifications

 Desert and its Classification

• Desert is a biome in which evaporation exceeds precipitation. The rate of evaporation varies with temperature. 

• Desert is likely to develop where the annual precipitation is less than 250 mm. It is important to remember that aridity (or the absence of moisture) is the common characteristic of all deserts, while temperature varies from desert to desert. 

• Deserts may be classified into hot and dry deserts, semi deserts, coastal deserts and cold deserts, based on the amount and distribution of temperature and precipitation.

• Deserts in which sand is in abundance, completely covering the ground and leading to the formation of dunes that resemble wave-like ridges of the ocean surface, are called erg, meaning a sand sea.

• In other deserts, the wind may blow away all the sand, leaving behind closely packed, interlocking angular rock fragments. Such a stony desert is known as reg.

• In some deserts the landscape is dominated by boulders and exposed bedrock. Hamada is the name given to such deserts.

Deserts Location

• Deserts are generally located at the 30 Degree Latitude (in both hemisphere).

• The largest hot deserts, like the Sahara and Arabian deserts, are located in the trade wind belt near the sub-tropical high pressure belts in both the hemispheres. These are places located under the descending limb of the Hadley Cell that dominates the atmospheric circulation in tropical areas. As the air subsides, it warms adiabatically, inhibiting condensation and precipitation.

• Some deserts are located on the leeward side of mountains and the rain shadow effect is responsible for their formation. The Sonoran desert in North America is located to the east of the coastal ranges.

• Deserts are also located in the interior of continents. Their interior location prevents them from receiving moisture from the oceans. The Gobi desert has been formed due to the inland location as well as the rain shadow effect.

• The presence of cold ocean currents also favours the formation of deserts. The formation of the Kalahari desert in Africa and the Atacama desert in South America is aided by the effects of the Benguela and Humboldt currents respectively.

*****

International Seabed Authority (ISA)

Ø  The International Seabed Authority (ISA) is an autonomous international organization established under the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) and the 1994 Agreement relating to the Implementation of Part XI of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea.

Ø   Headquarters in Kingston, Jamaica, came into existence on 16 November 1994, upon the entry into force of UNCLOS.

Ø  It became fully operational as an autonomous international organization in June 1996. 

Ø  ISA is the organization through which States Parties to UNCLOS organize and control all mineral-resources-related activities in the international seabed area, also known as “the Area.”

Ø  The international seabed area is the seabed and ocean floor and the subsoil thereof, beyond the limits of national jurisdiction and represents around 50 per cent of the total area of the world’s oceans.

Ø  ISA has the mandate to ensure the effective protection of the marine environment from harmful effects that may arise from deep-seabed-related activities.

Ø  All States Parties to UNCLOS are ipso facto members of ISA. As of 18 May 2023, ISA has 169 Members, including 168 Member States and the European Union.

FINDINGS AT HARAPPAN SITES IN INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION

Ø Mohenjodaro, a very special tank, which archaeologists call the Great Bath, was built in this area.

Ø Evidences of fire altars are found in Lothal and Kalibangan towards the Late Harappan phase, showing presence of immigrants.

Ø Mohenjodaro, Harappa, and Lothal had elaborate store houses.

Ø Cotton was probably grown at Mehrgarh from about 7000 years ago.

Ø Actual pieces of cloth were found attached to the lid of a silver vase and some copper objects at Mohenjodaro.

Ø The Harappans probably got copper from present-day Rajasthan, and even from Oman in West Asia.

Ø Copper to produce bronze, may have been brought from present-day Afghanistan and Iran.

Ø Gold could have come all the way from present-day Karnataka, and precious stones from present-day Gujarat, Iran and Afghanistan.

Ø We know from remains of plants that the Harappans grew wheat, barley, pulses, peas, rice, sesame, linseed and mustard.

Ø A new tool, the plough, was used to dig the earth for turning the soil and planting seeds. While real ploughs, which were probably made of wood, have not survived, toy models have been found.

Arthashatra- A Book on Statecraft

•  It is a book on Statecraft written/compiled by Chanakya/Vishnugupta/Kautilya during 4th Century BC.

• There is a widely held belief that the text of Arthashastra was not available till it was discovered by Sanskrit scholar Dr R Shamasastry. He found the 17th century writing on a bundle of palm leaves from a pandit in Tanjore in 1904.

• Arthashastra, has 15 parts (or books), 180 divisions, 150 chapters and approximately 6,000 verses or shlokas.

1. Book-1 contains details about the King, his ministers and other officers
2. Book 2 lays down the duties of the various executive officers of the state and state’s role in activities like agriculture, mining etc
3. Book-3 contains themes of law and administration.
4. Book 4 highlights suppression of crime.
5. Book-5 contains Miscellaneous topics like salary of officials etc.
6. Book-6 contains constituent elements of a state and foreign policy.
7. Book 7 also covers additional details on foreign policy.
8. Book-8 contains details of various calamities which may hamper functioning of a state.
9. Book-9 contains details pertaining to war preparations.
10. Book 10 relates to the art of fighting and its different modes.
11. Book 11 describes how a conqueror should tackle oligarchies governed by a group of chiefs instead of a single king.
12. Book 12 highlights how a weak king can overcome a strong king.
13. Book 13 describes how to conquer an enemy’s fort.
14. Book-14 informs about occult and secret practices.
15.  Book-15 and the last book highlights logical techniques and methodology used in Arthashastra.       

•  Arthashastra could be used as a manual of statecraft by any king, it was mainly meant for the vijigishu (one who wanted to conquer whole Indian subcontinent) and such a king was described as chakravarti in later Buddhist texts.

• Kautilya described structure of the state in his Saptanga theory or seven organs/elements of state or seven prakriti at the beginning of Book 6.

• The text structure of the Arthashstra as a whole follows the sequence of seven elements, starting with Swami in Book 1.

• Amatya, janapada, durga, and kosa are covered in Books 2 to 5. Danda and mitra are dealt with in Books 6 to 14.

• Saptanga was not an original contribution of Kautilya as some earlier works have referred to this theory.

• The seven elements combine to form a state. The seven elements of state as described by Kautilya are;

1.     Swami or the King.

2.     Amatya or the Minister

3.     Janpada or the People

4.     Durga or the Fort.

5.     Kosha or Treasury

6.   Danda or Sena or Coercive Power of State (Armed Forces, Secret Service and Police)

7.     Mitra or Ally/Friend

 

Kautilya has detailed many types of forts in Arthashastra.

a)     Audak fort is surrounded by water body.

b)    Parvat fort is built amidst high mountains. These forts play an important part while defending against an external attack.

c)     Dhanvan fort is surrounded by desert. 

d)    Van fort is situated amidst dense forest. Kautilya further says that the capital should be built at the centre of the kingdom and it should be divided in four districts, one for each caste.

                     

Kautilya has described six types of army.

  I. Clan army: Constitutes of hereditary soldiers like kshatriyas, as son of a soldier becomes a soldier. Kautilya gives maximum importance to this type of army. Such soldiers are loyal to the king and know different types of war strategies.

   II.         Hired soldiers or militia army.

 

  III.         Mobilisation of militia army is time consuming compared to a standing army.

 

   IV.        An army constituted by the corporations.

 

    V.         An army raised by recruiting the assistance of friendly countries.

  VI.         A fighting unit made up of prisoners of war i.e. enemy soldiers caught during a war.

 

 VII.         An army made up of tribal people.

 VIII.         Kautilya did not comment on naval warfare as he did not say anything about a sea-going navy. Army, according to Kautilya, is divided in four services – infantry, cavalry, chariots and war elephants. Kautilya has highlighted four basic forms of warfare.

 

                                          i.         Mantra-yuddha: war by counsel or use of diplomacy by a weaker king who finds it unwise to fight against a strong adversary.

                                          ii.        Prakash-yuddha: regular warfare where opposing armies fight according to established rules and regulations.

                                        iii.        Kuta-yuddha: irregular warfare including ambushes and raids in enemy territory.

                                        iv.        Tusnim-yuddha: includes covert operations like sabotage and targeted killings.