- The civilization existed between- 2550 BC- 1500 BC
- Period of Mature Harappan Culture – 2550 BC- 1900 BC
- Period of Post urban phase of Harappa- 1900 BC- 1500 BC (1200 BC at some places )
- The Indus civilisation is also called Harappan because “Dayaram Sahni” in the year 1921 first discovered Harappa, which is presently situated in West Punjab province of Pakistan.
- The civilisation was extended over an Area - 1299600 Square Kilometre which was bigger than contemporary Ancient Egypt & Mesopotamia Civilisation.
- Spread over area of the Civilisation was as follows;
South- Daimabad in Maharashtra & Bhagatrav in Gujarat i.e. up to Narmada River estuary
East- Bargaon, Manpur & Allamgirpur in West Meerut district of Uttar Pradesh.
West- Sutkah-Koh & Sutkagendor in Makran Coast of Baluchistan
Chronology of events of discovery
- First in 1826, Charles Manon noted high walls and towers at Harappa. He thought it belonged to the time of Alexander.
- In 1872 archaeologist sir Alexander Cunningham opined that the city was more than 1000 years old.
- In 1924 archaeologist John Marshal reported that he Civilisation is as old as of Mesopotamia & Egypt.
There were mainly Six important cities in Indus Civilisation Viz.
1. Harappa 4. Lothal
2. Mohenjo-Daro 5. Kalibangan
3. Chanhu-Daro 6. Banawali (Hisar, Haryana)
- Of these cities, Harappa & Mohenjo-Daro were the two most important cities and both are situated in Pakistan.
- Harappa & Mohenjo-Daro were situated at distance of 483 km & were linked with Indus River.
- Chanhu-Daro was situated 130 km South of Mohenjo-Daro in Sindh.
- Kalibangan was situated in Northern, Rajasthan.
- The port City, Lothal was situated at the head of the Gulf of Cambay in Gujarat.
- Above six cities had mature and flourishing Harappan phase.
- The mature phase of Harappa culture were also noticed in coastal cities “Sutkagendor & Sut-Kotda”
Agriculture & domestication of Animals
Ø They are under Indus civilisation is not fertile today. It receives only 15 cm of rain. In 4th century BC, Historian of Alexander informs that Sindh was very fertile land.
Ø The Indus people sowed seeds on flood plains in November. Wheat & barley were harvested in April.
Ø No “Hoe or Ploughshare” has been discovered.
Ø But the furrows discovered in the pre Harappan phase at Kalibangan. They probably used wooden Ploughshare.
Ø “Gabarband” or “Nalas” enclosed by Dams for storing water, were a feature in parts of Baluchistan & Afghanistan.
Ø Wheat Barley Rai Peas were produced. Oil such as sesame & Mustard were also produced.
Ø A good quality of Barley has been discovered at Banawali.
Ø At Lothal, a remains of Rice has been found which belongs to 1800 BC.
Town Planning/Major Characteristics of Harappan Culture
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| Remains of Indus Valley Civilization |
Ø The drainage system at Mohenjo-Daro was impressive.
Ø In almost all cities even big houses had their own courtyards and bathrooms.
Ø Water flowed from the house to the streets which had drains. At some places drains were covered with slabs. The streets drains were equipped with Manhole.
Ø The city was divided in to so many blocks in almost all cities and was planned in chess board system, having excellent drainage system, pipes, pits etc.
Ø Road cuts each other almost at right angles.
Ø The remains of Street and drain also found at Banawali.
Ø Perhaps no ancient people have such an excellent drainage system except peoples of Crete in Konsos.
Ø At Kalibangan many houses had their own wells.
Ø Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro (also Sur-Kotda and Sutkagendor) each had a citadel/ Acropolis which possibly occupied by ruling class.
Ø The arrangement of the houses in the city followed Grid system.
Ø Granaries were also found at Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa and Kalibangan.
Ø The Indus people were earliest to produce cotton. The Greeks called it “Sindon” derived from Sindh.
Ø They domesticated animals like Ox, Buffalo, Goats, Sheep, Pigs noticed (Cats, Dogs were also domesticated whose signs of feet have been noticed. Elephants & Rhino were well known Harappan.
Ø Remains of Horse were reported from “Surkotda” in west Gujarat and perhaps belongs to 2000BC. In any case Harappan were not Horse Centred.
Trade, Technology & Crafts
Ø Indus people were well acquainted with Bronze. However, Bronze was not prolific at Harappa.
Ø For making Bronze they obtained Tin possibly from Afghanistan & Copper from “Khetri” region of Rajasthan.
Ø Many bronze tools have been found at Harappa which suggests that Bronze smith formed an important artisan group.
Ø “Woven Cotton” has been found at Mohenjo-Daro.
Ø They were expert in “Bead Making”. Brick laying Terracotta manufacturing, Jewellery in Gold, Silver & Other precise stones were other important occupations.
Ø They did not use Metal Money but probably used Barter system for trade.
Ø They used “Modern Ekka” But not that of Spoked wheel rather Solid wheel, hence, they clearly have knowledge of “Wheel & Cart”.
Ø Harappa carried long trade in “Lapis Lazuli/Blue Stone” with Mesopotamia.
Ø They had setup Trading Station at “Dilmun & Makan” which lay between Mesopotamia & Meluha (Dilmun = Modern Bahrain). Meluha is the Ancient name of Indus Region.
Political organisation & Religious Practices
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| Goddess Earth |
Ø There is no clear evidence of political organisation or unit.
Ø Possibly, they were ruled by “Class of Merchants.”
Ø Unlike Egypt & Mesopotamia “No Temple” has been found in Harappan culture except great Bath which was possibly used for rituals.
Ø However, there is some indication of “fire cult” at Lothal.
Ø In one terracotta figurine showing “A plant growing out of embryo of woman. Probably this may be Goddess Earth”
Ø They considered earth as a “Fertility Goddess”.
Ø Harappan were matriarchies people like Egyptians.
Ø A “male deity” has been found depicted on a Sear. The Deity has “has horned Heads” in sitting posture of a yogi.
Ø The male Deity has been surrounded by “an elephant, a tiger a Rhinoceros and a Buffalo” below his throne at his feet “Two Deers”
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| Male Deity : Pashupati |
Ø The male deity is indentified as a “Pashupati Mahadev”.
Ø Phallus worship was practiced which latter connected with Shiva.
Ø They probably worshipped “Pipal Tree”
Ø Animal were also worshipped “Unicorn & Humped Bull” were worshiped. Unicorn indentified with Rhinoceros. The animals around the Pashupati were also worshipped. “Humped Bulls” were favoured by Harappan.
Ø Amulets have been found in large numbers which suggest that they believed in Evil Spirit/Ghost.
Ø Harappan scripts were picto-graphic. 250-400 Picto graph and together 4000 script have been found.
Ø Harappan Measurement were based on multiple of 16 i.e. 16, 64,160,320 etc. Thus they know the art of measurement.
Harappan pottery, Images & Terra cotta figurines
Ø Pots were generally decorated with Trees & Circles made on wheels and classified as Black Painted Red ware.
Ø The greatest artist creation of Harappan was Seals & about 2000 Seals have been found.
Ø Image of Dancing Girl made up of Bronze has been found at Mohenjo-Daro.
Ø Various terracotta figurine (Fire baked Earthen Clay) of Birds, Dogs, Sheep, Cattle and monkeys have been found.
Some major City wise findings in Harappa Civilization
1. MOHENJO-DARO
Ø Literally Mohenjo-Daro means “Mound of Dead”. Mohenjo-Daro was entirely rich in structures. Some prominent structure are;
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| Dancing Girl |
Ø The largest Building in Indus Civilisation was “The Great Granary” whose dimension was 45.71x15.23 meter.
Ø A college, multi-pillared assembly hall.
Ø Evidence of Horse comes from at superficial level.
Ø Evidence of Direct trades with Mesopotamia.
Ø A seal of Mother Goddess Earth.
Ø Bronze image of a Dancing Girl.
Ø Seal of Pashupati.
Ø A Seal of Women Sacrifice.
Ø Evidence Violent Death/ Discovery of Skeleton (Human).
Ø Image of Bearded man.
2. HARAPPA
Ø Evidence of about 200 coffin burial and cemetery ‘H’ culture.
Ø Six small Granaries has also found at Harappa in two rows. Each having dimension 15.23x6.03, cumulatively having approximately same area as that of Great Granary of Mohenjo-Daro. The combined floor space was 838 m2.
Ø Near Granaries of Harappa “Circular Brick Platforms” has been found, possibly used for threshing grains.
Ø Two rooms barrack was found at Harappa possibly occupied by labours.
Ø Evidence of Direct trade connection with Mesopotamia.
Ø Stone symbol of Female genitals.
3. KALIBANGAN
Ø Literal meaning is Black bangles.
Ø A Plough field.
Ø Wooden furrow
Ø Seven fire Altars suggesting cult of Sacrifice.
Ø It is the only Indus site where there is no evidence of worshiping Mother Goddess.
Ø Kalibangan is second town of Lothal where both Citadel and Lower town were surrounded by Massive brick walks.
Ø Evidence of two types of graves- (i) Circular (ii) Rectangular Burial Graves.
Ø A human head with long oval eyes, thick lips receding forehead and straight pointed nose.
Ø Seals depicting female figure b/whore male figures, fighting and with spear.
Ø Terra cotta figure of Charging bull and terracotta bangles.
4. LOTHAL
Ø An important trading centre for Harappan People.
Ø Remains of Rice Husk. Rangpur near Ahmadabad were another city where Rice Husk has been found.
Ø An artificial Dockyard.
Ø A doubtful Terracotta figurine of a Horse.
Ø Evidence of direct trade with Mesopotamia.
Ø Houses with entrance of the Main streets (All other cities had side entries).
Ø A painting on jar depicting clever fox story of Panchtantra.
Ø A seal & a terracotta figure depicting ship.
Ø Evidence of game similar to chess.
Ø Instrument measuring angles 180, 90, 45 i.e. just like a modern day compass.
Ø Evidence of Double of burial(Male & Female together)
5. CHANHU-DARO
Ø Only Harappan city without a citadel.
Ø Bronze figure of bullock cart & Ekka.
Ø Small pot suggesting footprint of elephant & a dog chasing cat.
Ø The city is also called “ Sheffield of India.”
Ø Spears, rotors, axes copper fish hooks was found.
Ø A bead making factory noted.
6. BANAWALI
Ø Here two different Phase, Phase-I&II of Harappan culture is found.
Ø This place possibly belongs to later Harappan culture.
Ø Grid pattern of houses/Town Planning is either absent or lacking.
Ø A high quality of Barley have been found here.
7. SURKOTADA
Ø This place is situated in present day Bhuj, Gujarat.
Ø It was an important fortified settlement.
Ø First actual remains of Horse is observed/found here.
Ø A cemetery with 4 pot burials with Human bones have been found.
Ø A grave in association with a big rock, a rare finding have been found here.
8. SUTKAGENDOR
Ø It was an important coastal town of Indus valley.
Ø It has two fold division of the Township; The citadel & the lower city.
Decline of the Mature/Urban phase of the Harappan Culture
Ø Mature Harappan phase was declined by 1900B.C.
Ø Various theories have been given by scholars such as earthquake, natural calamity, Aryan invasion theory, unstable river system etc.
Ø However, scholars believe possibly flood/earthquakes is responsible for decline of this great civilisation.
Post urban/Later Harappan Culture
Ø List of major Cities in later/post urban Harappan culture
· Rangpur in Rajasthan
Ø This period is marked from 1800 BC to 1200 BC.
Ø It was a Chalcolithic period in which people used stone and copper tools such as Axes, Razors, Fish hooks etc.
Ø Prabhash Patan (Somanath) and Rangpur both in Gujarat is direct descendent of Harappan culture.
Ø “Ahar” near Udaipur belongs to Harappan culture dating back to 2000 BC to 1500 BC. Here some burnt bricks have found.
Ø No burnt brick was found in late Harappan culture except at Bhagwanpura in Haryana.
Ø Stray pieces of Burnt bricks occur at Ochre painted pottery (OCP) site in Bulandsahar, UP.
Ø Nadvatoli in Malawa dating back to 1700 BC to 1200 BC belongs to Chalcolithic culture.
Ø “Jorwe Culture” also belongs to Chalcolithic period. The site has been spread between Godavari, Tapi and Bhima River.
Ø Daimabad in Maharashtra was largest Jorwe Settlement spread over 22 hectare having population appx.4000.
Ø Post urban settlement was found at Swat Valley where Black Grey Ware and Black on Red painted pottery was found.
Ø Manda in Jammu, Chandigarh and Sangoi in Punjab, Daulatpur & Mithal in Haryana, Alamgirpur & Hulas in Western UP belongs to late Harappan period.
Ø At Daulatpur & Hulas, Harappan people started using rice.
Ø At Alamgirpur, cotton of late Harappan period was found.
Ø Pottery in late Harappan was found were Painted Grey Ware, Grey Ware in Punjab & Haryana. However, PGW was feature of Vedic People i.e. late Harappan pottery is found in conjunction with Vedic people.
Ø All late Harappan sites lacks human figurine.
Ø End of Trade in Lapis Lazuli, Carnelian Beads, copper & bronze vessel with Mesopotamia and other west Asians.
Ø A few signs of Violence, Sense of Insecurity occurs in this period at Mohenjo-Daro.
Ø Buried jewellery and skull huddled have been found at places.
Ø Traces of appearance of new people/Aryans have been found in this period.
Ø Aryans settled in land of seven rivers in Sindh, Punjab.
Ø No evidence of mass confrontation of Harappan with Aryans have been found.
Ø Aryans may have encountered people of late Harappan between 1500 BC to 1200 BC.
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